October 29, 2016 / como / 0 Comments
India has an age old tradition of being peace loving country and this, it has depicted in all its activities and attitudes through the ages. But, with the growth of Science and Technology, the world has gone far ahead in using its knowledge of Science as an instrument of destruction. The movement of the world in its knowledge of Science has been thought provoking for the Indians also, and they have had to do some rethinking in the matter.
Immediately after independence, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of independent India started building friendships with other countries but, somehow, since its very inception, our relations with our closet neighbor Pakistan, have been mutually lacking in trust, and as such they remained strained always.
During the span of 25 years, from 1948 to 1971, India has three wars thrust upon it by Pakistan, which India obviously had to fight. In the year 1962, a war was also thrust upon India by another neighbor Chin. It is with this background that, India had to review its defense policy and defense budget. This it had to do only to be able to defend itself from onslaughts of others. Even after the wars India had to fight, in its thinking and attitude of not fighting. India did not undergo any change, but, it also realized that, with others continuing to advance in destructive management, India had to develop its knowledge of destruction, only if it was to save itself. With this background, and the scenario of the world India had to perforce plan out a strategy of defending itself.
The world scenario that has developed through the years is that, the great powers have increased their knowhow and also their arsenals of nuclear weapons, by leaps and bounds, and India is expected to just wait and watch. When India became independent, illiteracy and poverty were rampant, and Nehru started the process of planning the development of higher scientific and technological education and research in different fields. These were considered necessary for the eradication of poverty, development of agriculture and advancement of the country to compete with other countries of the world. It is with this in view that, the atomic energy establishment for study and research in the field was started in India, in the fifties, with the first atomic research centre, the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre being set up in Bombay, for the study and advancement of knowledge of the Science of Nuclear energy.
Nuclear energy has a number of useful applications, especially in the field of power generation. A number of atomic energy power stations were established in the country with the idea of utilizing this energy for peaceful purposes. This was achieved in India with the help form various countries who had know how in the field. The Indian scientists continued to advance their knowledge by a close interaction with their counterparts in other countries, and through their own researched.
What has been the advancement in the field can be verified only with nuclear explosions, and, like and other branch of Science this experiment is necessary to understand the extent to which we have progressed in the line. The knowledge developed in the laboratories was experimented by India in its first nuclear explosion conducted at Pokharan in Rajasthan, in the year 1974. This was just a simple ground trial of the laboratory research of the scientists. With further development, the second test of nuclear know how was conducted by India in May 1998. this test was also conducted at the same location of Pokharan in Rajasthan and is so called the Pokharan-II.
So much for the knowledge of India in the sphere of nuclear science but, what is our policy in the matter? Our policy has not changed from the early days of our independence, for, even to-day, when we realize that, we have the skill and the know how, we still are against using this knowledge as a weapon of destruction. The situation of the world to-day is that, the five big powers that have the maximum knowledge and reserves of nuclear weapons are, U.S.A., Russia, Britian, France and China. These powers are the five who have huge stock piles of nuclear weapons which they can legally develop and increase but, all the other powers of the world not supposed to grow in this sphere. Now that, some powers have nuclear weapons the natural corollary for all other nations of any magnitude is to have a desire to enter the arena even if it be in a small way. Indias nuclear policy has always been very clear in as much as, India is avowed to use its nuclear knowledge only for purposes of peace and never for confrontation with any one.
India has always been pressing from time to time on all world forums for a restraint on these big nuclear powers. Indias stand is that, they should stop the manufacture of nuclear arms for destructive purposes, and also destroy their existing dumps of arsenals, then, India will also continue the smaller countries of the safety of their respective states. However this point pressed by India has not been acceptable by the big powers. With this attitude of the big powers, the small powers have a continued feeling of insecurity, and they have also started a movement on the path of nuclear growth. The examples of this, are the latest entrants in this race, India and Pakistan. The two countries did this only to highlight to the world their know how in the Science, and thus showed to the world that they are not very far from the others in their knowledge. However, on the other side, the five big powers want to impose a discriminatory world order called the C.T.B.T., that is Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, on all the nations of the world.
By this the big powers want that, while they themselves can retain their huge nuclear dumps and even keep on adding on to them, the other countries will not be allowed to develop their nuclear powers. In respect to this decision, India has said very clearly that, this treatment of differentiation will not be accepted, and it is in no norms of natural justice that, there should be such a clear demarcation between the Haves and Have Notes. Thus, the truth of the matter is that, though the world claims to have reached the stage of global oneness but, in reality, some countries do continue to dominate the others. While some countries think it is their prerogative to sit on dumps of nuclear arsenals, they would not like the other lesser powers to develop even a simple know how of the technology. Thus Indias plea in the matter is absolutely correct when it says that, either all countries stop developing the nuclear weapons or all should be allowed to do whatever they can in the matter. For, when all countries are supposed to be equal then why this partiality? While some countries can fulfill their priorities, the others are denied the right. Indias policy is for the good of her own security and the stopping of the big powers becoming more powerful and thus more dangerous for world peace. Experience has shown the world how atomic invasions destroyed Nagasaki and Hiroshima in the World War-II, and taught all, about the potentially of the nuclear weapons for massive destruction. Thus so far, nuclear power has only acted as a deterrent to ensure that a military power does not indulge in any misadventure.
India wants to develop nuclear know how in all its forms specially for only peaceful purposes of nuclear energy. Being essentially a peace loving nation India can be fully trusted in, never being the offender in the matter of disturbing world peace. This is further corroborated by the latest declaration of the Prime minister of India that ours will always be the No first use policy as far as nuclear weapons are concerned. Presently just as in the past, India continues to press on al a world forums about-one, total nuclear disarmament of all the powers of the world. Secondly, India insists that, the big five powers that are established nuclear power must destroy all their nuclear arsenals in a phased manner, in a stipulated time frame. This action of the big powers total disarmament in the world. This will put a stop on the attempts of smaller countries trying to develop their know how and researches on the subject. This is the basic and though very logical approach of India, it has not found much acceptance in the comity of nations, and received any positive response from the nuclear powers. That this will lead to a continuing the latent attitude of suspicion of countries against each other, and this continues to point at the fact of the desire of the big countries to dominate the world scene. In this matter it would be advisable and more practical to achieve results that, the big brothers give examples to the younger brothers round the world, by disarming and destroying their nuclear weapons by and by. This will build a confidence in the smaller powers and then there is a chance that they may follow suit, and drop their pursuit of nuclear studies and research. For this, it is all important for the big powers to control themselves and then they may get obedience as, the smaller powers will feel secure and confident. This would be ideally achieved by the elder brother cajoling the younger, instead of punishing by means of imposing sanctions.
Today this is the policy of India and when it has achieved a breakthrough, instead of appreciating the growth of the once backward country, the big brother is punishing by sanctions. How far does this indicate the equality of nations, or similarity of attitudes towards the rich and poor countries? Indias stand on nuclear arms is quite logical for, once other powers get nuclear and India is not allowed to grow on this front will it not be left behind in its growth of knowledge? Is it not enough for India to declare that it will never use it first to show that, it does not want to develop nuclear know how with any destructive ideas in mind. For India to become a nuclear power, it requires a colossal investment for the manufacture of the bomb and its delivery system. An economically weak country like India is not likely to embark on such a course unless its security environments compel it to. This also is a serious stopper placed in India and would always prevent it form trying any misadventure of nuclear destruction. Seeing this scenario, India can not take upon itself the onus of any destruction by nuclear arms, as for one, it can not afford the fun, and for second, it is not its policy to destroy, it has always been peace loving and mature country.
February 21, 2016 / como / 0 Comments
Medicinal Importance of Aegle Marmelos(Bael) Dr. Anshu Tyagi, Dr. Manoj Kumar & Dr. Padma Singh Department of Microbiology, Kanya Gurukul Mahavidhyalay, Department of Chemistry, Gurukul Kangri University , Hardwar-249407,India
Abstract
Aegle marmelos commonly known as -bilwa -or -bael-,is highly valued plant for its characteristic aroma and medicinal value .The oil and dry fruit powder is an important export commodity from India giving a handsome amount of foreign earning to the country .A number of chemical constituents from different parts of plant have been extracted like aegelin marmelosin, coumarin ,-sitosterol and alkaloids .The plant is a rich source of amino acid ,galactose &fatty acid . The compound isolated from plant show a variety of pharmacological activity.
Key words: Aegle marmelos, Bael or Bilwa , Rutaceae ,Aegelin, Alkaloids
Introduction Aegle marmelos correa (family -Rutaceae)commonly known as bilwa or bael is a highly valued plant for its aroma & its medicinal properties .It is a extensively planted near Hindu temples for its leaves and wood which are generally used for worship . Bael is one of the most important plant used in the indigenous system of medicine .the fruit of particular is generally used for stomach related ailments Its fruit are edible as well as known drug for the management of diseases of gastrointestinal tract (GIT). Leaves are also useful in curing various diseases. This review depicts general distribution, phytochemistry, biological properties and medicinal uses of bael plant.
Distribution
Aegle marmelos is a small or medium sized deciduous, slender and aromatic tree .It is found widely throughout the Indian peninsula and in the Srilanka, Burma and in most of the South Asian countries .According to Airy Shaw (1973) three species are found in the tropical Asia and one in tropical West Africa. Only one species reported to grow in India.[1] .It grows wild and found almost throughout in India up to height of 5000 feet. It abundantly occurs along the Himalayan region, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat and in the forest of Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh also. The plant is mostly cultivated for its aromatic character and medicinal properties. it is basically propagated by its seeds which germinate freely .a spacing of approx 5-7 meter is ideal for the planting of this plant .[22,25,28,29]
Cultivation and Ecology
History of cultivation: Mention of Aegle marmelos has been found in writings dating back to 800 B.C. It is cultivated throughout India ,mainly in temple gardens ,because of its status as a sacred tree ;also in Pakistan and Northern Malaysia ,the drier areas of java ,and to a limited extent on Northern Luzon in the Philippine Islands where it first fruited in 1914. It is grown in some Egyptian gardens ,and in Surinam and Trinidad .Seeds were sent from Lahore in 1909 . Specimens have been maintained in citrus collections in Florida and in agriculture research stations but the tree has never been grown for its fruit in this state .Aegle marmelos fruit was resorted to by the Portuguese in the East Indies in the 1500’s and by the British colonials in later times as a means of halting diarrhea and dysentery . Natural Habitat: The tree grows wild in dry forests on hills and plains of central and southern India and Burma ,Pakistan and Bangladesh, also in mixed deciduous and dry dipterocarp forests .Aegle marmelos is a subtropical species .In the Punjab,it grows up to an altitude of 1,200m where the temperature rises to 48.89C in the shade in summer and descends to -6.67deg C in the winter ,and prolonged droughts occur .It will not fruit where there is no long ,dry season ,as in Southern Malaysia. Biophysical Limits Altitude up to 1200 m mean annual temperature: -6-48C. Rainfall Soil type: Aegle marmelos is said to do best on rich, well drained soil, but it has grown well and fruited on the oolitic limestone of Southern Florida .It also grows well in swampy ,alkaline or stony soils having pH range from 5to 8 .In India it has the reputation of thriving where other fruit trees cannot survive .According to reproductive biology in India flowering occurs in April and May soon after the new leaves appear and the fruit ripens in 10-11 months from bloom-March to June of the following year .
Propagation and Management
Propagation Methods: Aegle marmelos is commonly grown from seed in nurseries and transplanted into the field .seedlings show great variation in form, size ,texture of rind , quantity ,and quality of pulp and number of seeds .The flavor ranges from disagreeable to pleasant .Therefore, superior type must be multiplied vegetatively .Experimental shield-budding onto related species of afraegle and onto swinglea glutinosa Merr. has been successful .Occasionally ,air-layers or root cuttings have been used for propagation.
Tree Management: The tree has no exacting cultural requirements , doing well with a minimum of fertilizer and irrigation. The spacing in Orchards 6-9 m between trees .Seedlings begin to bear in 6 to 7 years ,Vegetatively propagated trees in 5 years .Full production is reached in 15 years .Normally, the fruit is harvested when yellowish-green and kept for 8 days while it loses its green tint. Then the stem readily separates from the fruit . A tree may yield as many as 800 fruits in a season but an average crop is 150-200, or , in the better cultivars ,up to 400.[17,40]
Photochemistry :
Basically the ripe fruits are very important part in the view of medicinal uses and have lots of variation in composition .The ripe fruits are woody, large, and spherical up to 20 c.m. in dia., pear shaped or oblong with more or less slightly tuberculate or smooth surface .In general peripheral part just with in the rind, is fleshy and thick, and has a very pleasant resinous odour .The walls separating the chambers have a light yellow tint which becomes yellowish brown on exposure, and have a warm, acrid bitter taste .chambers present in pulp are full of amber or honey coloured vicious ,very sticky or glutinous translucent pulp which is sweet and feebly aromatic. [2] The first preliminary chemical examination on Aegle marmelos was carried out by Dikshit & Dutt who isolated marmelosin compound .from the fruit. Accordingly in 100 gm of fruit pulp lots of contents are there as given below .It contains 61.5%moisture, 0.3%fat, 1.8%protein,2.9%fibre ,85mg calcium,50mg phosphorus, 0.6mg iron,2mg vitamin-c ,0.13mg thiamine,1.2 mg riboflavin,0.14mg niacin,18.7 mg oxalic acid, .55ug carotene ,137Kcal calorific value[11,15]. Aegelin along with skimmianine isolated from the leaves of the plants Another compound ?-sitosterol was also isolated from leaves. The heartwood contains -sitosterol ,two unidentified alkaloids and two unknown compounds aurapten, marmerin ,umbelliferone , and lupeol .Dictamine, pyroligenous acid are the contents of heartwood.The new alkaloids O-isopentenyl halfordinol ,1-phenyl 7- hydroxytetra hydroquinozoline-4- one,N-2 ethoxy-2(4-methoxy phenyl) ethylcinnamide, N-2methoxy-2-(4-3,3 dimethylallyloxy) ethyl cinnamide ,N-2 methoxy-2-(4methoxyphenyl)ethylcinnamide were isolated from the leaves[24]. From the leaves rutin , flavan-3-ols, anthrocyanins ,flavone glycosides and tannins have been reported from the leaves.Several known coumarins ,viz umbelliferone, xanthotoxin, imperatorin and aurapten from the stem bark were isolated in the recent researches .Xanthotoxin and 6-7 dimethoxycoumarin,scopoletin,umbelliferone and 6-7,epoxyauraptene isolated from root.[11,15] Bhattacharya and Jash isolated 6′-7′ epoxyauraptene , a coumarin from root .The fruit also contains a number of coumarins ,amino acids , arabinose , galactose , D-galactouronic acid and rhammnose , alkaloids ,sterols , essential oils alloimperatorin , marmelosin, identical with imperatorin and -sitosterol , It contains marmelide ,an isomer of imperatorin ,which exhibits tyrosinase accelerating and tryptophan pyrrolase inhibiting effect in Bufo melanosticus. The presence of psoralen , a powerful germination inhibitor and tannic acid is also reported .[6] The ripe fruits posses xanthotoxal , scoparone ,scopoletin, umbelliferone , marmesin, skimmin,and b-sitosterol .the fruit and rind yield ,respectively 7-9 and 18-22% tannin .The fruit yield 2% of dried ,water soluble gum .on hydrolysis , the gum contents and their composition are mentioned in the following data – galactose20.4% , arabinose 10.7% D-galactouronic acid 25.2% ,rhamnose in traces where as the roots possess xanthotoxin,6-7 di-o-mecoumarin , scopoletin , tembamide, umbelliferone, marmesin , marmin , and skimmianine. . [11] The gummy substance surrounding the seeds serves as a good adhesive and is added to water paints to improve strength and brilliancy. It is move abundant in young fruits .The yellow dye is extracted from the rind of unripe fruits. Imperatorin, alloimperatorin ,alloimperatorinmethyl ether ,xanthotoxol, scoparone , scopoletin, umbelliferone , skimmin, and psoralen, from the fruit . and umbelliferone ,xanthotoxol , scoparone , xanthotoxin, isoimperatorin , isopimpinellin, bergaptenosthol, and auraptin from fruit pericarp have reported by several scientist .endogenous gibberelin -A.A3 ,qnd A9 were isolated from the developing fruits. One of the compound known as 2-(2-hydroxy-4methoxyphenyl) vinyl acetate have been also isolated from heartwood .[5] Two new aromatic compounds 1-5 dihydroxy-6-methoxy-2-methylanthraquinonehave been isolated from the stem bark[2] .The seeds yield an oil (34.4%on dry basis ) having fatty acid in contents in the composition viz palmitic acid-16.6% ,stearic acid-8.8%, oleic acid -30.5% linoleic acid 8.1%.In a study conducted in I.C.A.R.,it is reported that the fruit of Aegle marmelos is superior to mango in possessing higher percentage of carbohydrate ,protein, fat, soluble fiber ,minerals vitamin B and vitamin C.[27] There is a variation in the percentage and number of chemical constituents in different reports .this may be due to existence of different chemical races or the analysis methodology employed.[28,29]
Biological properties:
The plant has been evidently used in the Ayurvedic system of medicines from time immemorial. A large number of compounds are isolated from different parts of plant. Lots of studies have been done in foreign countries . Acton and Notes describes important features of bael fruit in their book -Dysenteries of India-. Accordingly Henry published his research in -Transaction of royal society for tropical medicine and hygiene- about Aegle marmelos . The antiprotozoal and antifungal activity of leaves was also reported.[16] The therapeutic potential of root and bark studied for its hypoglycemic activity .[41,21]. The seed oil was found effective on different strains of Vibrios and inhibited the growth [5] .Leaf extract of Aegle marmelos exhibited 100% fungi toxicity against Rhizoctonia solani [31]. Fixed oil from seeds of Aegle marmelos and unsaponifiable portion of oil were found to be active against Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria.[4] . The fixed oil from seeds of Aegle marmelos exhibited mild to moderate antibacterial activity against test organisms but did not inhibit the growth of test fungi .[37] In same context antifungal activity of unsaponifiable matter was better than that of the fixed oil.[4]. Whereas according to another data the unsaponifiable matter of the oil however , exhibited remarkable activity against the test bacteria and inhibited the growth of test fungi.[37] Accordingly antimicrobial activity of Aegle marmelos leaf extract ,on exposure of germicidal UV light has been discussed.[39] .Ethanol extract of plant was found to be effective against Curvularia lunata ,Aspergillus niger, and Rhizopus nodulans .[32]. In addition patients suffering from diarrhea predominant irritable bowel syndrome showed significantly greater improvement in symptoms when given an indigenous preparation containing Aegle marmelos Marmelosin ,isolated from bael plant has been reported to have anti helminthic and antibacterial activity.[15,11]Volatile oil of Aegle marmelos shows potant fungicides against broad spectrum of fungi.[13].The effect of methanol extract of Aegle marmelos leaves on mycelial growth and sclerotium formation in Sclerotium rolfsii was studied.[26]. The indigenous uses of the leaves for the treatment of diabetes mellitus .[34] The seeds of plant protect oral administration of luvangetin against multiple models of gastric ulceration in rodents.According to another study essential oil isolated from leaves shows antifungal activity.[28].In another study the effect of leaf extract of Aegle marmelos on biotransformation enzyme system and protection against free radical mediated damage in mice.[38].. Methanolic extract of unripe fruit decreased castor oil induced diarrhea possibly due to presence of tannin and mucilaginous substances.[34].Oral administration of water extract of fruits show hypoglycemic effect .[20] .Extract from Aegle marmelos was antiproliferative on human breast cancer cell lines Extract also inhibit the proliferation of transplanted ehrichascites carcinoma in mice.[18] The antifungal activity of essential oil isolated from leaves of bael plant evaluated using spore germination assay .The oil exhibited variable efficacy against different fungal isolates and 100% inhibition of spore germination of all the fungi tested was observed at 500ppm. [14]
Medicinal uses:
A study was also carried out on a preliminary chemical examination of the root, bark ,leaf ,fruit and seed [10] The leaves are astringent, digestive, laxative, and febrifuge, when fresh removes vata and kapha .It also useful in opthalmia, deafness, and inflammations. Fresh juice dilution is praised in catarrh and feverishness. The fresh juice of leaves is given, with addition of black pepper, in anasarea , with costiveness and jaundice .In external inflammations the juice of leaves is given internally to remove the supposed derangement of humans . The expressed juice of leaves is used in opthalmia and other eye affections .In Malabar a decoction of leaves is valued in asthmatic complaints. A hot poultice to head is used in delirium of fevers.[15,22] The flowers allay thirst and vomiting .It is also useful in dysentery. Water distilled from flowers, is said to be alexipharmic. The ripe fruit is hot and dry ,tonic, restorative ,astringent , laxative good for the heart and the brain , bad for liver and chest .[Yunani ] .The unripe fruit is oily bitter , acrid ,sour ,tasty but its very difficult to digest ,appetizer binding , cures dysentery and helpful in removal of pain . The oil is hot and cures vata .The ripe fruit is acrid bitter ,sweet ,appetizer , febrifuge , causes biliousness and tridosha removes vata and kapha .It is also play a very important role for heart diseases .[Ayurveda ] . [14] In the Konkan small unripe fruit is given with fennel seeds and ginger in decoction for piles .The ripe fruit is sweet aromatic and cooling agent as it made into a morning sherbet .It is pleasantly laxative and a good simple cure for dyspepsia. The dried ripe pulp is an astringent and used in dysentery also .The unripe fruit is cut up and sun dried and in this form it is sold in market in dried whole or broken slices .It is regarded as astringent ,digestive ,and stomachic .It is prescribed in diarrhea and dysentery often proving effectual in chronic cases ,after all other medicines have failed .It seems especially useful in chronic diarrhea ,a simple change in the hours of meal and an alteration in ordinary diet ,combined with bael fruit will almost universally succeed .[22] In a Cambodia fruit is prescribed in tuberculosis and hepatitis .a liquid extract of fruit was tried in several cases of dysentery and diarrhea and found to be generally useful .A syrup of the pulp of this fruit was administered to a few cases of chronic enteritis .The patients derived benefits after long continuous use . Root and bark is also very important part in the view of medicinal uses .The root bark is sometimes made into a decoction and used in cure of intermittent fever .It constitutes an ingredient in the dashamul or ten roots .It is used on Malabar coast in hypochondriasis, melancholia and palpitation of the heart. The root is sweet, cures fever due to tridosha pain in the abdomen, palpitations of the heart and urinary troubles .It removes vata ,pitta and kapha .It was suggested that root bark is effective for heart diseases .[19]. A decoction of the root of Aegle marmelos is given with sugar and fried rice for checking diarrhea and gastric irritability in infants .The root , leaves and bark are prescribed as an antidote to snake venom [Sushruta, Vaghata ,Bapat] . [7]
References
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